In corneal refractive surgery, corneal topography is used preoperatively to detect irregular astigmatism, ectatic corneal disorders, or other abnormalities, and to monitor topographic stability ...

Keratoconus occurs when this cornea becomes thinner and protrudes in a conical shape. This alteration in the cornea's form ...

Other potential drawbacks of incisional keratotomy include risk of perforation, infection, unpredictability of result, creation of irregular astigmatism, and disruption of the ocular surface.

Toric contact lenses, which may be rigid or soft, are needed for moderate astigmatism. They are designed to compensate for ...